What does success mean in a livestock-based economy? How has land reform influenced what success is possible in a dryland, marginal area? To explore these questions, we carried out success rankings in our two A1 sites in Matobo district. In one village 6 women and 5 men attended, while in the other 5 men and 5 women took part.
In relation to the clusters of criteria identified in the previous blog, in Matobo, cattle as assets are clearly vital, and especially for men. All livestock were however seen as vital, including donkeys, sheep, goats, turkeys, chickens and even dogs. Navigating through successive droughts was seen as crucial to success, as was ‘prior accumulation’ (idlela owaqalisa ngayo) – for example, someone who arrived with one animal and slowly grew the herd/flock over time. Having cars/trucks was seen as crucial, especially given the remote locations of these farms and the poor roads preventing public transport to operate. Shuttling of people and agricultural products from the farm to town was seen as vital in ensuring success.
Crop farming is linked to livestock ownership through draft, manure supply and so on in this now mixed farming area. As a result, ‘Ukulima’ – farming – so as to harvest adequate food to eat and sell surplus to Grain Marketing Board (GMB) was a key criterion, even if the prospects of regular, good crop surpluses are small in this dryland region. Just as ‘paying taxes’ and obligations to the state, sending crops to the GMB was seen as contributing to the nation, and paying back for the benefits of gaining land through land reform.
In Matobo, there is a steady flow of people to and from South Africa (as well as further afield) and migration success was seen as linked to local success, as long as resources were invested on the farm. Those who had claimed land in the area, but had not developed their farm as they were away were dismissed, even if wealthy, and given a separate category during the rankings. ‘Uthando’, which means love or interest of farming and full-time residence on the farm, was seen as essential to success. In turn, education was seen as critical to successful migration to get a reasonable job and so increasing the likelihood of remittance payment to the home or investment in ‘projects’.
‘Ukuphila kahle’ – health and sanitation/hygiene – was mentioned frequently in the discussions, particularly by women. This included having access to sufficient and nutritional food and having sanitation infrastructure (e.g., toilet, waste pit and a stand to dry plates etc.). Many also highlighted the importance of having a solar system (‘getsi’) – including solar panels, lithium batteries, tubing etc. – for the most successful (SG1) households.
There was an interesting discussion around the pros and cons of having a large family, including through polygamy. According to participants, having a large family can have two opposing effects. Having lots of children can be a source of cheap labour, but conversely, having lots of children can pull down the households as a lot of cash is required to educate the children. Above family size, family stability and cohesion was mentioned as vital, particularly by women.
Transitions
Our earlier rankings were only done in 2018, as this is the most recent site established in the study, so the time difference is only 7 years. Nevertheless, many changes have occurred in the subset of 73 households who were present at both times.
Table 1. 2018 rankings vs 2025 rankings in Matobo
| 2025 rankings | |||||
| 2018 rankings | SG1 | SG2 | SG3 | Total | |
| SG1 | 11 | 7 | 0 | 18(24.7%) | |
| SG2 | 2 | 10 | 2 | 14(19.2%) | |
| SG3 | 2 | 18 | 21 | 41(19.2%) | |
| Total | 15(20.5%) | 35(47.9%) | 23(31.5%) | 73(100%) | |
From this data we can see that:
- 56% (42 households) remained static (11 households remained in SG1, 10 in SG2 and 21 in SG3).
- 12.3% (9 households) decreased their rank moving down one or two rankings over the period.
- 30.1% (22 households) increased their ranking moving one or two rankings over the period.
- Overall, 42.5% (31 households) had changed rank.
As the individual cases show (in some cases corroborated by additional information from our biographical interviews), the reasons for transitions and stasis vary. The following cases illustrate.
Case studies I: transitions to a higher rank
Many transitions to higher ranks have been driven by investments from outside. Having jobs in town and then returning following retirement/retrenchment was key to some of the dramatic moves upwards in the rankings. Being resident and able to manage the farm was frequently emphasised. Others have received other windfalls from outside, including making money through brief excursions into artisanal gold mining, while for most remittances are a crucial supplement to on-farm production, and can be important for strategic investments. Such households have invested seriously in improving homes, and have solar systems, boreholes, irrigation pumps and so on.
Case 1: MN (from SG2 to SG1). MN is a war veteran and retired tailor. From the mid-1980s until late 2020, he worked as a tailor at Barrington clothing (formerly Leonard clothing and later Hapden). After his retirement, he returned to his plot and took up farming on a permanent basis. In 2018, MN’s household was placed in SG2. At the time, he was absent, living in Bulawayo where he was working, while his divorced daughter looked after the homestead. According to participants, MM used to drink alcohol ‘too much’, but now a ‘pastor’ (quit alcohol)’. His family ‘used to move door-to-door asking for mealie meal’, as one participant put it. As his sons age into adulthood, they find jobs in South Africa. MN enjoys a supportive relationship with his urban-employed sons, who are key benefactors to his household. It is partially through his sons’ support that he constructed a modern three-roomed brick and tin roof house and installed an expensive solar system, and security fence (diamond mesh).
Case 2: ED (from SG2 – SG1). In 2018, ED’s household was ranked in SG2. ED passed away in 2024, and her last-born son took over. He and his family are full-time resident on the farm. Participants described him as a ‘very good farmer’.
Case 3: JM (from SG3 to SG2). A 2018 success ranking exercise placed JM’s household in SG3. At the time, the household had four donkeys only and no cattle. In the same period, he and his wife were absentees. Working as a security guard at a gold mine in Gwanda while his now ex-wife also engaged in piece-work in nearby towns, the household engaged in very little farming at the time. Thus, the household relied on buying food, including maize. Around 2021, he got a windfall from artisanal gold mining at the mine where he was working at the time and used the proceeds to purchase cattle and other farm implements. Today, he owns four head of cattle.
Case 4: TN (from SG3 to SG2). TN is a 55-year-old man who acquired an A1 plot in 2000 in Luma. Soon after acquiring the plot, he was then asked by the war veterans who were part of the ‘Committee of Seven’ to stay at the farm homestead as a ‘security guard’. In 2013, the farm homestead was later allocated as part of an A2 farm to a retired lieutenant colonel who later employed him as a herder. Thus, TN spent the first 18 years of settlement living away from his plot and not developing it. As a result of his absence, his household was placed in SG3 in 2018. He took occupation of his plot in 2019, and his family now lives at the plot.
Case 5: IS (from SG3 to SG1). IS is a war veteran and retired soldier who is now a full-time farmer in Luma village. In 2018, IS’s household was placed in SG3. At the time, he had no cattle, although he had some few donkeys. According to participants, he has educated all his children. With a solid education, his children were able to gain comparatively modest footholds in urban job markets and sees them remitting to the household. One of her daughters is employed as a schoolteacher, while one of his sons is employed as a mechanic. In 2016, with all his children having finished schooling, he was able to purchase a heifer using his pension. Today, he owns a herd of 6 cattle.
Case 6: BS (from SG3 to SG1). BS is a secondary school teacher in Bulawayo. For many years, his plot was used by his relatives with large herds from nearby Wenlock communal areas as ‘mlaga’ (cattle post). These relatives were using his plot as a base while leasing in grazing in Luma and other surrounding areas. In 2018, BS’s household was placed in SG3. He has recently invested in water engine and engages in horticulture at the plot.
Case studies II: transition from higher to lower rank
Those who have declined have frequently been hit by successive droughts that have resulted in livestock mortalities with herds not recovering. These losses in turn have been exacerbated by livestock theft, a particular problem in one of the villages neighbouring a communal area in the next district. Decline may also be due to a lack of management capabilities as people get older and some die.
Case 7: SD (from SG1 to SG2). SD was a widow who owned 32 cattle, 5 donkeys and 3 goats in 2018. After her husband died in 2006, she managed to build up her herd from seven in 2006 to 32 by 2018 through natural births and leasing arrangements (mlaga) during the 2011-12 drought period. She also owned a house in Bulawayo, which had recently extended using income from cattle proceeds. Besides these assets, she was also described as a very ‘good farmer’ with adequate farm equipment. During good rainfall years, she often harvested good yields and sell surplus to GMB. Because of all this, SD’s household was placed in SG1. However, in 2025, things have changed. SD passed away due to diabetes. And her youngest son (now 25 years old) and oldest son (now 30 years old) who returned home after a long sojourn in South Africa, took over the farm and were responsible for managing the plot. Although the two sons had managed to retain over 35 head of cattle, the household was placed in SG2 category recently. Participants of success ranking premised the decline of SD’s household to the fact that her two sons were drunkards and were not managing the plot and herd very well. The cattle were rarely dipped, and were not paying taxes to the state.
Case 8: NN (from SG1 to SG2). In 2018 51-year-old NN’s household was placed in SG1 category. At the time, NN was employed as a policeman at the nearby Kezi town and was commuting daily to work while staying on the farm with his wife. With the farm being his main place of residence, NN and his wife were able to carefully manage their farming operations. At the time, the household was ranked in SG1 category. It had 16 head of cattle, 26 goats and 10 donkeys. They were also described as good crop farmers. Besides farming, the household was running a vibrant tuckshop within the homestead. NN’s workplace savings and proceeds from farming and other off-farm activities were directed to educating his children. However, in 2018, NN was forced to take early retirement amid allegations of taking a bribe from a motorist at a traffic police roadblock. Following his retirement, he secured another job in Bulawayo as a bus inspector and moved to Bulawayo with his family, leaving a worker at home. Because of their absence, the family no longer farms the way they used to do. According to participants, production has declined. NN’s herd had declined to around 8 due to sales. With non-residence in the village and decline in production, a recent success ranking exercise placed NN’s household in SG3.
Case studies III: maintaining a high rank
The majority of households (57.5%) had stayed in the same rank over time. They had not gained significant windfalls or benefited from changed circumstances, and at the same time had not been seriously affected by droughts, old age, infirmity or other misfortunes over the 7 years. Those who have maintained their SG1 status (15%) are perhaps the most interesting of this stasis group, as maintaining success despite shocks and stresses is really important. The following case studies (all remaining in SG1) show how this has been achieved.
Case 9: 44 year-old CM’s household represent one of the most successful rural households in Vimbi. In 2018, his household was ranked in SG1 category. His assets (large herd, pick-up truck, agricultural equipment, etc.), good homestead, hardworking nature, commitment to farming and heavy investment in his children’s education placed him firmly amongst the village elite. He was described as an assiduous livestock farmer, and his herd was the largest in the village. In 2025, CM’s homestead was still in SG1 category, although he has further increased his wealth. His herd had further increased from 35 in 2018 to 53 in 2025 despite two recent severe droughts (2019 and 2024). During the 2024 El Nino drought CM only lost 2 cattle thanks to his careful management. He always scans the horizon for troubles ahead and can manage challenges as they arise. Despite variable crop output, CM is also a very good crop farmer. The family’s homestead is amongst the most well-built and comfortably furnished in the village, with a solar system and satellite dish funded by proceeds from cattle sales. In 2018, after selling cattle, he gave his wife start-up capital to rear broilers. His wife rears a batch of between 50 to 100 birds at a time. CM owns a pick-up truck purchased with proceeds from cattle sales along with agricultural equipment, which he hires out to neighbours. This alongside his wife’s broiler project provided sufficient cash-on-hand to sustain groceries purchase, while bulk proceeds from cattle sales have been essential to fund major investments, including paying children’s school fees. A key strategy of the household is therefore refraining from selling cattle for consumptive purposes. In sum, diversification into other livelihood strategies (broilers, car hiring) along gender lines and on the back of a unified household and strong cooperation has enabled the household to maintain its rank.
Case 10: 67 year-old AS is a war veteran and retired soldier. AS’s household represents one of the most successful households in Vimbi village. In 2018, his household was ranked in SG1, and has managed to maintain the same rank today. Like CM, AS is an assiduous livestock owner who also works as a para-vet in the village. Despite losing seven cattle because of the 2025 El Nino drought, AS’s household has managed to sustain a large herd of cattle (51), as well as flocks of sheep and goats. Livestock accumulation was first premised on savings garnered from wages from his job in the army, land leasing during the 2011-12 drought and later births. Like CM, his homestead is well-built and comfortably furnished equipped with a powerful solar system purchased with proceeds from cattle sales and satellite dish as a strategy to lure the next generation. This modern home is aimed to provide his children and grandchildren with the same comfort they enjoyed in town. AS accrued income in a wide range of livelihood activities, including livestock, crop sales and pensions.
Generating success in a livestock economy
In sum, maintaining and accumulating large herds of cattle (in these cases around 20-30) is crucial for success in Matobo A1 areas. This may be done in many ways, as the cases reveal, but navigating droughts and other disasters (in the period since 2018, COVID-19 being a key moment), as well as preventing thefts is critical. Relationships with outside income earning opportunities, and so diversification in the face of drought shocks, is also vital, and steady flows of remittances or windfalls (mining, retirement/retrenchment) are central to generating success.
Thus, good connections and positive social relations with others away from the farm are essential, as is luring children back to the farm to take over management tasks as parents become older or die. Investing in the home to make it ‘like town’ is part of this, and many continue to move regularly between town (mostly Bulawayo) and the farms. Men and women take on different roles in both production and social reproduction processes, with women often being more mobile and seeking opportunities outside while men manage livestock in the village. However, as a later blog describes, there are few fixed gender roles these days, and there is huge variation across households.
As our success ranking participants recognised, in a predominantly livestock economy, where success is so linked to the health and growth of animal herds/flocks, accumulating and then managing livestock takes time and skill and this requires being present, or at least having very good management capacities/support. With relatively late settlement of many in this area (from 2005), building up animal numbers has been central in establishing these farms. The move from a tentative engagement, with people moving between the new farms and jobs in town to a more firm, continuous commitment has been crucial in the transitions that have been seen. Looking ahead, assuring this commitment from the next generation will be essential for future success.
This is the second blog in a series exploring ideas of ‘success’ in post-land reform Zimbabwe. The blog has been written by Ian Scoones and Tapiwa Chatikobo, with inputs from Felix Murimbarimba (who facilitated the workshops), Godfrey Mahofa, Jacob Mahenehene, Sydney Jones (Matobo), Moses Mutoko (Masvingo), Makiwa Manaka (Gutu), Vincent Sarayi/Peter Tsungu (Mvurwi) amongst many others in each of our sites. This blog first appeared on Zimbabweland